Main Thinkers of Shad Darshanas

 The Shad Darshanas, also known as the Six Schools of Indian Philosophy, are the traditional classification of the different philosophical schools that emerged in ancient India. Each of these schools offers a distinct perspective on the nature of reality, the self, and the ultimate goal of human existence.

Here are the main thinkers associated with each of the six schools:

1. Samkhya: The Samkhya school was founded by Sage Kapila. Its main exponent is Ishvara Krishna.
2. Yoga: The Yoga school was founded by Sage Patanjali. Its main exponent is Vyasa.
3. Nyaya: The Nyaya school was founded by Sage Gautama. Its main exponent is Udayana.
4. Vaisheshika: The Vaisheshika school was founded by Sage Kanada. Its main exponent is Prashastapada.
5. Mimamsa: The Mimamsa school was founded by Sage Jaimini. Its main exponent is Shabara.
6. Vedanta: The Vedanta school has three major sub-schools, each with its own set of thinkers:

• Advaita Vedanta: The main exponent of Advaita Vedanta is Adi Shankaracharya.
• Vishishtadvaita Vedanta: The main exponent of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta is Ramanuja.
• Dvaita Vedanta: The main exponent of Dvaita Vedanta is Madhvacharya.

 

Eight types of Marriage as per Manusmriti

As per Manusmriti, there are eight forms of marriage:

1. Brahma Vivah

2. Prajapatya Vivah

3. Daiva Vivah

4. Arasha Vivah

5. Asur Vivah

6. Gandharva  Vivah

7. Rakhshash Vivah

8. Paishacha Vivah

---

---

Sources: Yet to be provided

Note from the editor: The above information is confined to narrating the fact. However, for any further elaboration, the original authorities are required to be quoted. The information as available on the internet may be used but use discretion and selection. A casual attitude towards these issues ends with dissatisfaction and ignominy.

---

Gomastahs

---

---

Gomastahs were the agents of the East India company. As the agent of the East India company, they moved around inner side of the country and procure the goods which the East India Company then exported to London. In company records and the writings of the British officers on the history of the East of India, they are generally referred as native agents. The term was generally used in Bengal Presidency or the Calcutta government as the Bengal Presidency is referred to in the accounts of the British Officer history. Such agents were authorized after 1757 to undertake monetary transactions and commitments. They enjoyed protection of the Calcutta government as it gradually acquired political power in Bengal Suba. As a result, the native agents overlooked the authority of the officers of the Bengal government or the native government as the British records would like to account in their published works. It is a view among historians, that the later days Indian capitalists were at one time gomastahs which had provided them opportunity to earn private wealth while working for the company government. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had also acted as a gomastah if that interpretation is to be adopted. It was in that capacity, that he earned wealth.

---

---

Nij Cultivation

Nij Cultivation

It was also called zerat cultivation. It was a land settlement between the planters and ryots wherein the ryots were bound to a bond to undertake a cultivation for a particular crop. The issue of indigo crops became a major incidence in Bihar and Bengal region.

It is researched based observation that this system of contract was preferred by the English Planters of indigo. They leased the land from the zamindars and then executed the Nij or zerat cultivation with the crop producers or ryots. The nij contracts were adopted after indigo revolts. Before the indigo revolt (1858) raiyati system was practiced. The nij cultivation declined in Bengal after the indigo revolt and continued in Bihar where it had spread at a later stage.

The leases acquired by the English planters from the Big Zamindars were in form of Thika tenure ( temporary lease) or mukrari tenure (premanent lease).

---

---

Reference:

(based on the quotation and references from Plantations, proletarians and peasants in colonial Asia. pp.178, Edited by E. Valentine Daniel, Henry Bernstein, Tom Brass, Routledge, London, 1992. ISBN 0-7146-3467-0.

---

---

Saptanaga

Saptanga:

Saptanga means seven elements of State, a theory of state as given by Kautilya and Valluvar. The seven elements are Swami, Amatya, Janapada, Durga, Kosa, Danda and Mitra.

---

---

Reference: R. S. Sharma, Aspects of Political Ideas and Institution in Ancient India, pp. 31, Chapter III.

---

---

Sultana Turkman Katun

---

---

Sultana Turkman Katun was the chief wife of Sultan Shamsuddin Iltutmish of Delhi Sultanate. Sultan Razia bint al Sultan was born to her from Iltutmish. Razia was nominated as successor by Sultan Shamsuddin Iltutmish. Razia was sidelined by the nobles on the demise of Itutmish. Razia managed to establish her claim by her strong will power and character. Sultana Turkman Katun and Razia lived in the royal place Kushk-Firozi.

---

---

Digital Source

---

---

Authority Referred

---

---

Edit Report

---

---

Remarks

---

---

Iltutmish

---

---

Iltutmish: Iltutmish is a Turkish word which means 'saviour fo the kingdom'. The persian word for it is Altamish or Altamsh. The synonymous words are alamgir or Jahangir.

This word had been used with the name of Shamsuddin who was the real founder of Delhi Sultanate as it was he shifted the capital of his Shamsi rule from Lahore to Delhi. He was slave as well as the son-in-law of Qutubuddin Aibek, the founder of Slave dynasty and slave of Muhammad Ghori.

---

---

Digital Source

---

---

Authority Referred: Jaswant Lal Mehta, Advanced Study of in the History of Medieval India.

---

---

Edit Report

---

---

Remarks

---

---

Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India: 1000-1526 A.D.
Medieval Indian Society and Culture (Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India, Vol. III)

---

---

Apad Dharma

---

---

Apad Dharma: It means the norms to be followed during the crises in life. The Western scholars has defined it as 'duty when in distress'. These norms and duties are specified in the Samriti literature. Under it, a person belonging to a class is suggested the alternative means of earning livelihood if he is faced with crises in life.

---

---

Remarks: Remark: The social aspects of Indian history or for that matter the whole of Indian history, remains restricted by the frames as envisaged, understood, explained and interpreted by colonial historians started by peculiar chapterization by J Mills history. Different variations in chapterization had taken place but some of the concepts invented and interpreted by colonial historians and then 'minus-religion' history of Marxist historians with their analytic paradigm consolidated them, remained as paranormal edifices of Indian society and guided the perception in modern and post modern academic field. No doubt, one of the shortcoming is the lack of efforts by the Indian scholars to present the history and social reality from Indian centric paradigms.

---

---

Authority Referred

---

---

Digital Reference

---

---

Edit Report

---

---

Manu Smriti: A Sociological Analysis
Hindu scheme of things: Socio-political analysis of Manu-smriti
Manu-smriti [i.e. Manu-smrti] Notes

---

---

Dvija

---

---

Dvija
Dvija has been translated by the colonial historians as 'twice born'. This is a term which has been used for an Aryan who has undertaken Upnayan Yagna and as a result wears Yagyaupvita. Yagyaupvita is a circular thread or band that covers left shoulder and passes from right side of the body. The material for the thread is different for different people who enters at the stage of Brhamacharya as per norms of his family or the acharya whom he or she joins.

The colonial historians explain it as taking a second birth norm among aryans. The first birth is the natural or biological birth. The second birth is the ceremony which is referred to in the previous paragraph. Such a ceremony is some times also identified with Namkaran/dastar bandi ceremonies in which the name of the child is declared to the clan. It is emphasized here that Namakaran and upnayan yagna are not the same ceremonies but they have similar sanctity.

---

---

Digital Sources:

---

---

Authority Referred

---

---

Edit Report

---

---

Remark: The social aspects of Indian history or for that matter the whole of Indian history, remains restricted by the frames as envisaged, understood, explained and interpreted by colonial historians started by peculiar chapterization by J Mills history. Different variations in chapterization had taken place but some of the concepts invented and interpreted by colonial historians and then 'minus-religion' history of Marxist historians with their analytic paradigm consolidated them, remained as paranormal edifices of Indian society and guided the perception in modern and post modern academic field. No doubt, one of the shortcoming is the lack of efforts by the Indian scholars to present the history and social reality from Indian centric paradigms.

---

---

---

---

---

---

Satri

---

---

Satri: Satree

Satri was a special cadre of spies found mentioned in Arthshastra. The term is generally translated as a class mate or a colleague.

The members of this cadre were trained since their childhood for the purpose of spying. they were mainly orphans recruited for the job. they moved around as saints or astrologers - the two classes of people in whom the people confide the hidden secrets.

Special Note:
Arthshastra has mentioned nine types of spies among whom Satri is one of them. The others are Kaptaik Chhatra - fraudulent disciple, Udasthitha - a recluse, Grihapatik - a householder, Tikshna - a fire brand, Rasada - a prisoner, Vaidekhaka - a merchant, Tapasa - an ascetic practising austerities and a mendicant women.

---

---

Digital Source

---

---

Authority Referred

---

---

Edit Report

---

---

Remarks

---

---

---

---

Duhsadhasadhanika

---

---

Duhsadhasadhanika: DUH-sdha saadhanika

Duhsadhasadhanika was a special officer employed by kings of ancient India to track down and apprehend bandits.

---

---

Authority Referred: A. L. Basham, Wonder That Was India

---

---

Remarks: They may be equated to Special Task Forces formed to apprehend the special categories of criminals like smugglers or drug mafia or economic offenders etc of the present days. Even 'Black Cat' forces may also be identified as similar to Duhasadhasadhanika. Well, it is my opinion. I have not found much elaboration on this term. It is found in A. L. Basham with some elaboration which is basis of the definition above.

---

---

Edit Report

---

---

Digital Source

---

---

From the Vedas to the Manu-Samhita: A Cultural Study

---

---