Nij Cultivation

Nij Cultivation

It was also called zerat cultivation. It was a land settlement between the planters and ryots wherein the ryots were bound to a bond to undertake a cultivation for a particular crop. The issue of indigo crops became a major incidence in Bihar and Bengal region.

It is researched based observation that this system of contract was preferred by the English Planters of indigo. They leased the land from the zamindars and then executed the Nij or zerat cultivation with the crop producers or ryots. The nij contracts were adopted after indigo revolts. Before the indigo revolt (1858) raiyati system was practiced. The nij cultivation declined in Bengal after the indigo revolt and continued in Bihar where it had spread at a later stage.

The leases acquired by the English planters from the Big Zamindars were in form of Thika tenure ( temporary lease) or mukrari tenure (premanent lease).

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Reference:

(based on the quotation and references from Plantations, proletarians and peasants in colonial Asia. pp.178, Edited by E. Valentine Daniel, Henry Bernstein, Tom Brass, Routledge, London, 1992. ISBN 0-7146-3467-0.

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Apad Dharma

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Apad Dharma: It means the norms to be followed during the crises in life. The Western scholars has defined it as 'duty when in distress'. These norms and duties are specified in the Samriti literature. Under it, a person belonging to a class is suggested the alternative means of earning livelihood if he is faced with crises in life.

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Remarks: Remark: The social aspects of Indian history or for that matter the whole of Indian history, remains restricted by the frames as envisaged, understood, explained and interpreted by colonial historians started by peculiar chapterization by J Mills history. Different variations in chapterization had taken place but some of the concepts invented and interpreted by colonial historians and then 'minus-religion' history of Marxist historians with their analytic paradigm consolidated them, remained as paranormal edifices of Indian society and guided the perception in modern and post modern academic field. No doubt, one of the shortcoming is the lack of efforts by the Indian scholars to present the history and social reality from Indian centric paradigms.

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Manu Smriti: A Sociological Analysis
Hindu scheme of things: Socio-political analysis of Manu-smriti
Manu-smriti [i.e. Manu-smrti] Notes

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Dvija

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Dvija
Dvija has been translated by the colonial historians as 'twice born'. This is a term which has been used for an Aryan who has undertaken Upnayan Yagna and as a result wears Yagyaupvita. Yagyaupvita is a circular thread or band that covers left shoulder and passes from right side of the body. The material for the thread is different for different people who enters at the stage of Brhamacharya as per norms of his family or the acharya whom he or she joins.

The colonial historians explain it as taking a second birth norm among aryans. The first birth is the natural or biological birth. The second birth is the ceremony which is referred to in the previous paragraph. Such a ceremony is some times also identified with Namkaran/dastar bandi ceremonies in which the name of the child is declared to the clan. It is emphasized here that Namakaran and upnayan yagna are not the same ceremonies but they have similar sanctity.

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Remark: The social aspects of Indian history or for that matter the whole of Indian history, remains restricted by the frames as envisaged, understood, explained and interpreted by colonial historians started by peculiar chapterization by J Mills history. Different variations in chapterization had taken place but some of the concepts invented and interpreted by colonial historians and then 'minus-religion' history of Marxist historians with their analytic paradigm consolidated them, remained as paranormal edifices of Indian society and guided the perception in modern and post modern academic field. No doubt, one of the shortcoming is the lack of efforts by the Indian scholars to present the history and social reality from Indian centric paradigms.

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Dayabhaga

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Dayabhaga:
Dayabhaga is a legal commentary by Jimutavahana. Dayabhaga defines the basis of inheritance. It forms the part of a compilation titled Dharmratna. The present law of inheritance among the Hindus in India are based on Dayabhaga commentary by Jimutavahna.

Daya means a wealth which becomes property of a person by reason of a relationship with the actual owner. Hence, it defines that how property transfers from a father to his sons and other relations.

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Mitakshara

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Mitakshara:
It is a law book written by Yogi Vigyaneshwara. According to B. D. Basu, he serves as the principal authority in law even before the codification of Hindu law in Modern period. B. D. Basu argues that he was associated with King Bhoja. However, A. L. Basham had specifically written that he was a jurist at the court of Chalukya King Vikramadity VI (1075-1127). B. D. Basu translated a treatise of Vigyaneshwara for the British government wherein he states that Vigyaneshwara was son of Upadhyaya Bharavaja Padmanabhabhatta.

Anyhow, the present civil law of India and Hindu property law have incorporated the legal theories and interpretations as given in Mitakshara.

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Rekhta

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Rekhta: Rekhta was language of common man (lingua franca) in Indo-Muslim society in the thirteenth and fourteenth century. It was a mixture of various languages adopted by Lakshkar (army) in its camp (Urdu) and gradually followed by the people in cities (Hindavi or Dehlavi) especially among those who had converted to Islam.

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Authority Referred: J. L. Mehta: Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India; Vol III: Medieval Indian Society and Culture.

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Amira Khusaro ka Hindavi kavya: Springara sangraha ki Barlina prati sahita

Hindavi bhasha aura usaka sahitya: Visesha sandarbha sekha Asarapha ka Nausarahara
A House Divided: The Origin and Development of Hindi/Hindavi

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Pancha Mahayajnas

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In the Grihya Sutras, an Aryan householder is directed to five yajna (sacrifices) every day. They are as follows:

1. Brahma Yajna
2. Pitri Yajna
3. Deva Yajna
4. Bhuta Yajna
5. Atithi Yajna

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Kinds of Marriages in Ancient India

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Kinds of Marriages in Ancient India:
According to Grihya Sutra, there were eight kinds of Marriages in Ancient period of Indian History. The are listed as below:
1. Brahma Marriage
2. Prajapatya Marriage
3. Arsha Marriage
4. Daiva Marriage
5. Gandharva Marriage
6. Asura Marriage
7. Rakhas Marriage
8. Paisach Marriage

The Grihya Sutras had accorded approval for Brahma Marriage, Prajapatya Marriage, Arsh Marriage and Daiva Marriage.

The Dharam Sutra of Gautam, Baudhayana and Vasishta approve all the eight kinds of marriage. However, the Dharam Sutra by Apastamba refers only to six of them and excluded the Rakhas and Paisach marriages.

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Digital Sources: For corresponding References Check Dharma Sutra available online at www.sacred-texts.com

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Remarks: Subject to elaboration

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